List 9
易于受到攻击的 ☆☆
代表单词：vulnerable
英文注释： susceptible to attack (AHD)
拓展单词：open to attack, susceptible to attack, unprotected (2015, 2017), exposed (2015)
预测单词：easily damaged
其他考试形式： “容易受到”open to=subject to
老师说词
实际上expose本意有两个要点：即“可见”和“不受保护”。2015年考过unprotected=exposed这个组合。
经典例句
For many years scientists assumed that a cooling of the climate was responsible, with dinosaurs being particularly vulnerable because, like modern reptiles, they were ectothermic (dependent on environmental heat, or coldblooded). (TPO 33)
很多年来，科学家认为气候变冷是恐龙灭绝的罪魁祸首，因为恐龙和很多现代爬行动物一样是变温动物（依赖于环境温度，或冷血动物），面对气候变化非常脆弱。
攻击
代表单词：strike
英文注释： hit sharply, as with the hand, the fist, or a weapon (AHD)
拓展单词：bombard
预测单词：assail, attack
经典例句
It carries fine particles of sand, which bombard exposed rock surfaces, thereby wearing them into yet more sand. (OG）
风携带着细小的沙粒，这些沙粒会轰击暴露在外的岩石表面，从而将其磨损成更多的沙粒。
Lightning that strikes the ground is the most likely to be destructive, so even though it represents only 20 percent of all lightning, it has received a lot of scientific attention. (TPO 18)
击中地面的闪电最有可能具有破坏性的影响，所以尽管它的发生概率只占所有闪电的20%，它备受科学界的关注。
Attack by scavengers and bacteria, chemical decay, and destruction by erosion and other geologic agencies make the odds against preservation very high. (TPO 20)
食腐动物和细菌的破坏、化学性腐烂、以及侵蚀等其他地质作用都会非常不利于保存。
激怒 ☆
代表单词：irritate
英文注释：rouse to impatience or anger (AHD)
拓展单词：annoy (2016)
预测单词：provoke, anger, displease
老师说词
2016年阅读词汇题考过irritate的“恼怒”这个含义，但是其在阅读文章中出现的意思是“刺激”。“恼怒”的反义词是“平静”，比如soothe，please，calm，mollify，placate，这几个词都可用于表达这个意思，请一并记住。
经典例句
A loud bossy voice that irritates listeners. (AHD）
这种响亮的、刺耳的声音会激怒听众。
If the irritation is severe enough, a sleeping person will arouse, clear the airway, then resume breathing and likely return to sleep. (TPO 24)
如果刺激足够剧烈，会把睡觉的人惊醒，起来清理呼吸道，恢复呼吸后，很可能会重新入睡。
激发，刺激 ☆☆☆
代表单词：stimulate (2014, 2015, 2017)
英文注释： rouse to activity or heightened action, as by spurring or goading (AHD)
拓展单词：prompt (2017), provoke, bring about, trigger (2017), cause, encourage (2017), start (2017), launch (2017)
预测单词：inspire, spur, instigate
其他考试形式： “鼓励”advocate=prompt (2015)
老师说词
stimulate在历年考试中多次出现，另外，这个词本身就有因果关系的含义，比如，政府通过基础设施建设刺激经济，那么基建就是原因，经济上涨就是结果。provoke有两个意思，一是“激怒”；二是“刺激”。prompt有三个意思，一是“激发”；二是“鼓励”；三是“提示”，比如电脑中经常出现的提示语，用的就是prompt。
经典例句
The pool of excess cash rapidly stimulated a thriving economy outside fort gates. (TPO 19)
过剩的资金积累迅速刺激了军事要塞以外的经济，使其兴旺起来。
The best ways to prevent harmful aggression may be to encourage less harmful aggression. (OG）
避免有害攻击行为的最好办法可能是鼓励危害较小的攻击行为。
Competition for good farmland may also have prompted people to bond together to assert rights over the best fields.
对于良田的竞争也会促使人们团结起来争取最好土地的权利。
The need to oversee the entire process brought about the emergence of an elite that was eventually transformed into a government. (TPO 33)
出于监督整个过程的需求，一个上层精英团体出现了，它也逐渐转变成了政府部门。
The introduction of paper spurred a conceptual revolution whose consequences have barely been explored. (TPO 34)
造纸术的发明激发了一次概念变革，其影响还未曾可知。
入侵
代表单词：encroachment
英文注释：take another's possessions or rights gradually orstealthily (AHD)
拓展单词：gradual invasion
预测单词：trespass, intrusion
经典例句
A worsening of the plight of deer was to be expected as settlers encroached on the land, logging, burning, and clearing, eventually replacing a wilderness landscape with roads, cities, towns, and factories. (TPO 4)
鹿群处境的持续恶化是可以预料的，由于定居者不断侵占土地、砍伐树木、焚烧（植被）、清除（障碍物），最终将野外风景变成了公路、城市、乡镇和工厂。
By the early twentieth century, as government modernization in a sense caught up with what had been happening in the countryside since the 1870s, the government bureaucracy intruded more and more into village life. (TPO 32)
到20世纪初，随着政府的现代化执政方式在某种意义上已经赶上了自19世纪70年代以来在农村变革取得的一切成果，政府官僚主义对乡村生活的影响越来越深入。
儒雅的
代表单词：urbane
英文注释：polite, refined, and often elegant in manner (AHD)
拓展单词：cultivated
预测单词：sophisticated, cultured, polished, civil
老师说词
这个词考得比较少，仅在TPO中出现过。urbane指的是“礼貌的，有教养的，举止优雅的”。refined作为形容词，意为“举止优雅的”。
经典例句
She describes him as urbane and charming.
她形容他文雅而迷人。
His mother was an elegant， cultivated woman.
他的母亲是一个优美、文雅的女人。
忍受 ☆☆
代表单词：endure
英文注释：carry on through, despite hardships; continue in existence (AHD)
拓展单词：survive (2017), tolerate (2017), put up with (2017)
预测单词：bear, stand
经典例句
Certain kinds of low trees can endure high winds and very low temperatures. (TPO 1)
某些种类的矮树可以抵抗大风和极低的温度。
A complex climax community, such as a temperate forest, will tolerate considerable damage from weather to pests. (TPO 3)
一个复杂的顶级群落，如温带森林，可以抵御来自气候和害虫的干扰和入侵。
A few chondrules contain grains that survived the melting event, so these enigmatic chondrules must have formed when compact masses of nebular dust were fused at high temperatures—approaching 1, 700 degrees Celsius—and then cooled before these surviving grains could melt.
一些陨石球粒含有未被熔化的颗粒，所以当致密的星云尘埃团在接近1700摄氏度的高温下熔化的时候，这些神秘的陨石球粒肯定已经形成了，并且它们在那些幸存的颗粒熔化之前就冷却了下来。
支持 ☆☆
代表单词：support
英文注释：aid the cause, policy, or interests of (AHD)
拓展单词：champion, sponsor, back up (2014), sustain (2015)
预测单词：uphold, side with
其他考试形式： 名词“支持者”supporter=proponent (2016)
老师说词
champion熟词生义，其“冠军”的意思很常见，但其动词词性却表示“支持”之意。
sustain一词多义，第一个意思是“维持”的意思，第二个意思是“支持”。
经典例句
She sponsored Duncan's first appearance in Europe. (OG）
邓肯在欧洲的首次比赛是由她赞助的。
Advocates for this opinion point to reports from people who have experienced a trance state, a highly suggestive state of low consciousness between waking and sleeping. (OG）
这个观点的拥护者们提供了一份关于人类经历昏迷状态的报告，昏迷状态暗指一种介于清醒和睡眠之间的极其微弱的意识状态。
But this vegetation had a thin root mat with no soil formation, demonstrating that there was little long-term stability in plant cover, a finding supporting some of the arguments of Colinvaux. (TPO 45)
但是并没有适合植被生存的土壤形成，说明本地区的植被不具备长期生存的稳定性，这与柯林沃斯的某些观点一致。
证明 ☆☆☆
代表单词：justify
英文注释： demonstrate or prove to be just, right, or valid (AHD)
拓展单词：support, substantiate (2015), prove (2015, 2017), provide evidence of (2014, 2015), attest to (2014, 2015, 2017), confirm (2017)
预测单词：warrant, approve, validate
经典例句
Two types of images substantiate this theory. (OG）
两种类型的图像证实了这一理论。
The continuation of biological rhythms in an organism without external cues attests to its having an internal clock. (TPO 13)
这种在生物体内没有外界干预的生物节律，其延续性证明了它具有内在的生物钟。
Data from observational methods must be confirmed through multiple studies. (TPO 13)
通过观测方法得到的数据必须通过多项研究加以证实。
加强 ☆☆
代表单词：reinforce(2014, 2015)
英文注释：give more force or effectiveness to (AHD)
拓展单词：support, strengthen (2014), make stronger (2015)
预测单词：fortify, stress, prop, underline, bolster
老师说词
fortify意为“巩固，加强”，尤其是指对军事的防御。
经典例句
Sculptors learned how to strengthen the internal structure of a statue with iron braces. (OG）
雕刻家们掌握了如何用铁制支架来加强雕像的内部结构。
Architecture of this era reflected this with even the largest of the fortified towns and hill forts containing no more than clusters of medium-sized structures. (TPO 47)
这反应在当时的建筑物中是，连最大的设防城镇和山间堡垒中，最多也就是一些中型建筑物。
妨碍 ☆☆
代表单词：impede
英文注释： retard or obstruct the progress (AHD)
拓展单词：obstruct, slow down (2014), inhibit (2014), restrict (2014), prevent
预测单词：hinder, preclude, thwart, retard
其他考试形式： 名词形式obstruction=obstacle (2017)
老师说词
“阻碍”的反义词应该是“帮助，协助”，比如，help，aid，promote，assist。
经典例句
One obstacle to the transition from a nomadic lifestyle to the sedentary lifestyle required by agriculture was that hunter-gatherers had not developed storage techniques. (TPO 21)
从游牧生活方式过渡到农耕生产方式（这种生活方式需要定居下来）的一个绊脚石是狩猎者没有学会贮藏保鲜食物的技术。
It is difficult to imagine how this could affect the cattle, but the relationship may help or hinder them in some way not yet recognized. (TPO 17)
很难想象这种关系会对牛产生怎样的影响，会在某种程度上促进还是阻碍它们生长，目前还不得而知。
Their calculations show that the impact kicked up a dust cloud that cut off sunlight for several months, inhibiting photosynthesis in plants. (TPO 8)
他们的计算结果表明，撞击所扬起的灰尘遮挡阳光达数月之久，抑制了植物的光合作用。
The release of heat energy is retarded by the tall vertical city walls that do not allow infrared radiation to escape as readily as does the relatively level surface of the surrounding countryside. (TPO 48)
释放出来的热能被高耸的城市建筑物所阻拦，使得红外线无法像周围的乡村那样因为有相对空旷、平坦的地表而容易传播出去。
事件 ☆☆
代表单词：event
英文注释：something that takes place (AHD)
拓展单词：episode (2014, 2016), occurrence (2016), phenomenon
预测单词：incident, happening, matter
老师说词
在考题中event常与happen和occur一起出现。
经典例句
Episodes of increased extinction have recurred periodically. (TPO 15)
物种灭绝的现象在周期性地复发。
Texts dealing with economic matters predominated, as they always had done; but at this point works of theology, literature, history, and law also appeared. (TPO 26)
有关经济方面的文本占主导地位，它们历来如此。但同时，关于神学、文学、历史和法律的作品也孕育而生了。
限制 ☆☆☆
代表单词：restrict
英文注释：keep or confine within limits (AHD)
拓展单词：limit (2016, 2017), confine (2016), keep check in (2014)
预测单词：curb, keep within bounds or limits
其他考试形式： 名词形式constraint=limitation (2016)
经典例句
Trade was the mainstay of the urban economy in the Middle East, as caravans negotiated the surrounding desert, restricted only by access to water and by mountain ranges. (TPO 16)
商贸是中东地区都市经济的至要命脉，好比商队穿越浩瀚沙漠，而水源通道和延绵山脉决定商队如何跋涉。
At the same time, both cattle and humans were more confined in their movements, staying much closer to permanent water supplies for long periods of time. (TPO 4)
同时，牲畜和人类的行为范围进一步靠近，在固定水源附近长期更亲近地共处。
In contrast, the food levels in the deeper layers of the ocean are greatly reduced, and the energy constraints on the animals are much more severe. (TPO 45)
相比之下，在深海中的食物层级大大降低，对动物能量供给更受约束。
促进 ☆☆
代表单词：promote
英文注释：contribute to the progress or growth
拓展单词：facilitate (2014), further (2014), advocate (2015), encourage (2015, 2017), foster
预测单词：advance, boost, endorse
经典例句
Higher temperatures and pressures promote sedimentation. (TPO 4)
较高的温度和压力促进沉积岩的形成。
The expansion of trade was facilitated by developments in banking and financial services. (TPO 10)
银行和金融服务业的发展促进了贸易的扩大。
In turn, a deep attachment to the land, and to the stability which rural life engenders, fostered the Roman virtues: gravitas, a sense of responsibility, pietas, a sense of devotion to family and country, and iustitia, a sense of the natural order. (TPO 16)
反过来，对土地以及乡村生活稳定性的深深依恋孕育了罗马人的品格：即gravitas，责任感；peitas，对家庭和国家的牺牲精神；以及iustitia，一种对自然秩序的使命。
改善 ☆☆
代表单词：enhance
英文注释：make greater, as in value, beauty, or reputation
拓展单词：promote (2015, 2017), improve (2017), refine (2015)
其他考试形式： 名词形式refinement=improvement (2015)
老师说词
“改善”和“促进”，的确有语义交集，但是“改善”的范围更大。比如，可以说社区环境改善了，但是不能说社区环境促进了。
经典例句
Perceiving an apparent connection between certain actions performed by the group and the result it desires, the group repeats, refines and formalizes those actions into fixed ceremonies, or rituals. (TPO 1)
当他们意识到自己的某些行为和期许的结果之间存在明显的联系以后，人们便开始重复、完善并且形式化这些行为，最终形成固定的典礼或宗教仪式。
Physical separation between subpopulations promotes the formation of new species because once the members of one subpopulation can no longer mate with members of another subpopulation, they cannot exchange variant genes that arise in one of the subpopulations. (TPO 31)
亚族群间的物理隔离可以促进新物种的形成是因为隔离之后一个亚族群里的个体无法与其他亚族群个体交配，因此该族群里突变的基因将无法与其他亚族群交流。
物质的 ☆
代表单词：physical
英文注释：of or relating to material things (AHD)
拓展单词：tangible (2014)
预测单词：material, substantial sensible
其他考试形式： 反义词形式no material=intangible
经典例句
A completely different theory holds that yawning assists in the physical development of the lungs early in life, but has no remaining biological function in adults. It has been suggested that yawning and hiccupping might serve to clear out the fetuses airways. (TPO 19)
一个完全不同的理论认为，打哈欠有助于幼儿期肺部的生长发育，但是对于成年人来说并无任何生理功效。这也暗示了打哈欠和打嗝或许能够清理胎儿的呼吸道。